Improving Evacuation Effectiveness on Cruise and Large Passenger Ships : An Analysis of Human Factors, Safety Culture, and Behavioral Dynamics
Date of Award
2026
Document Type
Thesis
Degree Name
Doctor of Philosophy in Maritime Affairs
Specialization
Ph.D (Maritime Affairs)
Campus
Malmö, Sweden
Abstract
Maritime trade has long constituted a central pillar of economic development, supporting global commerce and cultural exchange. Nevertheless, the maritime environment is inherently hazardous and therefore the protection of human life has consistently constituted and will continue to remain a central priority (Casson, 1995). An instrumental turning point in maritime safety occurred after the sinking of Titanic in 1912, which prompted in 1914 an International Conference dedicated to the protection of human life at sea; which ultimately led to the adoption of the International Convention on Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) (Dalaklis, 2017). This Convention introduced internationally imposed safety standards regarding life-saving appliances, communications, and navigational practices; areas previously lacking uniform comprehensive regulation (Langewiesche, 2004). Since then, maritime safety has evolved through extensive regulatory refinement and technological innovation, between others including systems such as the Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacons (EPIRB) and Search and Rescue Transponders (SART) (LSA Code), 2023). However, despite the significant advancement in vessel operations and emergency technologies, progress in evacuation performance and procedures remains limited or marginal over time. The evacuation time requirements prescribed by SOLAS - typically set at 30 minutes for cruise/ passenger ships – often remain unachievable in real-world incidents. The "Costa Concordia" disaster highlighted these shortcomings. Although the vessel complied with the international safety standards and was equipped with advanced technologies, the evacuation lasted over six hours and resulted in 32 casualties; despite the ship’s close proximity to the shore. Similar patterns have been observed over other accidents such as the “Scandinavian Star”, “Estonia”, and “Express Samina”, thus indicating recurring deficiencies in leadership, crowd management, crew training, and the psychological factors influencing decision- making before and during evacuation.
This doctoral dissertation aims to identify and analyze the factors contributing to evacuation delays and procedural deficiencies that extend abandonment duration and increase the risk of fatalities. Furthermore, it aims to produce a structured framework of recommendations designed to improve evacuation practices and ultimately save more lives. In order to achieve these, the study adopts a composite conceptual framework. The safety culture theory primarily drives the research effort and is complemented by the behavioral theory. Methodologically, the research initially begins with a series of semi-systematic and systematic literature reviews to comprehensively map the topic and to comprehend all its different and multidimensional aspects around existing procedures, deficiencies, mindsets, behaviors, and opportunities. The findings are presented in three academic papers (Appendices A, B, C). Subsequently, a triangulated empirical approach is employed (mixed-method survey, semi-structured interviews, and observation) mainly targeting seafarers. This research phase aims to initially confirm or contradict the findings of the previously conducted reviews and to identify themes and areas not previously captured. Finally, the empirical results inform recommendations for improving existing abandonment procedures and the overall regulatory regime, drawing on perspectives of seafarers; who alongside cruise/ passenger ship passengers, constitute the primary beneficiaries of the present research. These recommendations, address training and competence; human element, leadership and communication; procedures and operational management; ship design and technological support; and governance, regulation and oversight. The results of the empirical phase of the research are presented in two papers (Appendices D, E).